The historical development of Nyaya school is unclear, although Nasadiya hymns of Book 10 Chapter of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions. In early centuries BCE, states Clooney, the early Nyaya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry and pursuit of knowledge. By 2nd century CE, Aksapada Gautama had composed Nyāya Sūtras, a Sep 29, · Theology Unleashed: Matt Dillahunty is a seasoned debater, the current president of the Atheist Community of Austin, and the well known host of The Atheist blogger.com has debated Jordan Peterson, David Wood and a host of other theists, and has shared stages with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris and Laurence Krauss Dec 03, · René Descartes (–) is widely regarded as the father of modern philosophy. His noteworthy contributions extend to mathematics and physics. This entry focuses on his philosophical contributions in the theory of knowledge. Specifically, the focus is on the epistemological project of his famous work, Meditations on First Philosophy
God and Time | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nyāya Sanskrit : न्याय, does god exist philosophy essay, nyā-yáliterally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", [1] [2] is one of the six orthodox astika schools of Hinduism.
Nyaya school's epistemology accepts four out of six Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge — Pratyakṣa perceptionAnumāṇa inferenceUpamāṇa comparison and analogy and Śabda word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.
This premise led Nyaya to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, does god exist philosophy essay, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality.
Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of direct realismstating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires Anuvyavasaya अनुव्यवसाय, cross-examination of cognition, reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows, does god exist philosophy essay. Nyaya school shares some of its methodology and human suffering foundations with Buddhism ; however, a key difference between the two is that Buddhism believes that there is neither a soul nor self; [13] Nyaya school like other schools of Hinduism believes that there is a soul and self, with liberation moksha as a state of removal of ignorance, wrong knowledge, the gain of correct knowledge and unimpeded continuation of self.
Nyaya न्याय is a Sanskrit word which means justice, equality for all being, specially a collection of general or universal rules. Nyaya could also mean, "that which shows the way" tracing its Sanskrit etymology. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, the term also refers to an argument consisting of an enthymeme or sometimes for any syllogism.
Nyaya is related to several other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies: Hetu-vidya science of causesAnviksiki science of inquiry, systematic philosophyPramana-sastra epistemology, science of correct knowledgeTattva-sastra science of categoriesTarka-vidya science of reasoning, innovation, synthesisVadartha science of discussion and Phakkika-sastra science of uncovering sophism, fraud, error, finding fakes.
Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water? Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came after this world's production, Who knows then whence it first came into being? Rig VedaCreation The historical development of Nyaya school is unclear, although Nasadiya hymns of Book 10 Chapter of Rigveda recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions.
While the early Nyaya scholars published little to no analysis on whether supernatural power or God exists, they did apply their insights into reason and reliable means to knowledge to the questions of nature of existence, spirituality, happiness and moksha. Later Nyaya scholars, such as Udayana, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God. The most important contribution made by the Nyaya school to Hindu thought has been its treatises on epistemology and system of logic that, subsequently, has been adopted by the does god exist philosophy essay of the other Indian schools.
The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six or seven categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya. According to Matthew Dasti and Stephen Phillips, it may be useful to interpret the word jnana as cognition rather than knowledge when studying the Nyaya system. The Nyaya school of Hinduism developed and refined many treatises on epistemology that widely influenced other schools of Hinduism, does god exist philosophy essay.
Nyaya treated it as theory of knowledge, and its scholars developed it as Pramana -sastras. Pramanaa Sanskrit word, literally is "means of knowledge". It encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which does god exist philosophy essay beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The Nyaya scholars, along with those from does god exist philosophy essay schools of Hinduism, also developed a theory of error, to methodically establish means to identify errors and the process by which errors are made in human pursuit of knowledge.
These include Saṁśaya समस्या, problems, inconsistencies, doubts and Viparyaya विपर्यय, contrariness, does god exist philosophy essay, errors [31] which can be corrected or resolved by a systematic process of Tarka तर्क, reasoning, technique.
Pratyakṣa perception occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology. Perception can be of two types, laukika ordinary and alaukika extraordinary. Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception: [35] Indriyarthasannikarsa direct experience by one's sensory organ s with the object, whatever is being studiedAvyapadesya non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsayaccording to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perceptionAvyabhicara does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect and Vyavasayatmaka definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, does god exist philosophy essay, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe.
Ordinary perception to Nyaya scholars was based on direct experience of reality by eyes, ears, nose, does god exist philosophy essay, touch and taste. The Naiyyayika maintains two modes or stages in perception, does god exist philosophy essay.
The first is called nirvikalpa indeterminatewhen one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and the second savikalpa determinatewhen one is able to clearly know an object.
Vātsāyana says that if an object is perceived with its name we have determinate perception but if it is perceived without a name, we have indeterminate perception. Jayanta Bhatta says that indeterminate perception apprehends substance, qualities and actions and universals as separate and indistinct something and also it does not have any association with name, while determinate perception aprrehends all these together with a name.
There is yet another stage does god exist philosophy essay Pratyabhijñāwhen does god exist philosophy essay is able to re-recognise something on the basis of memory.
Anumāna inference is one of the most important contributions of the Nyaya. It can be of two types: inference for oneself Svarthanumanawhere one does not need any formal procedure, and at the most the last three of their 5 stepsand inference for others Parathanumanawhich requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps. Inference can also be classified into 3 types: Purvavat inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived causeSheshavat inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect and Samanyatodrishta when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence.
A detailed analysis of error is also given, explaining when anumana could be false. The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It does god exist philosophy essay five steps, as in the example shown: [ citation needed ]. In Nyāya terminology for this example, the hill would be called as paksha minor termthe fire is called as sādhya major termthe smoke is called as hetuand the relationship between the smoke and the fire is called as vyapti middle term.
Hetu further has five characteristics: 1 It must be present in the Paksha, 2 It must be present in all positive instances, 3 It must be absent in all negative instances, 4 It must not incompatible with the minor term or Paksha and 5 All other contradictions by other does god exist philosophy essay of knowledge should be absent.
The fallacies in Anumana hetvābhasa may occur due to the following: [ citation needed ]. Upamāna उपमान means comparison and analogy.
He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller identify the new animal later.
The 7th century text Bhaṭṭikāvya in verses Śabda शब्द means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.
This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda words. Some schools, such as Carvakastate that this is never possible, does god exist philosophy essay therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means does god exist philosophy essay establish reliability.
Testimony can be of two types, Vaidika Vedicwhich are the words of the four sacred Vedas, and Laukikaor words and writings of trustworthy human beings. Vaidika testimony is preferred over Laukika testimony. Laukika-sourced knowledge must be questioned and revised as more trustworthy knowledge becomes available. Each school of Hinduism has its own treatises on epistemology, with different number of Pramanas. For example, compared to Nyaya school's four pramanasCarvaka school has just one perceptionwhile Advaita Vedanta school recognizes six means to reliable knowledge.
Metaphysics Nyaya-Vaisheshika offers one of the most vigorous efforts at the construction of a substantialist, realist ontology that the world has ever seen. It provides an extended critique of event-ontologies and idealist metaphysics, does god exist philosophy essay. This ontology is Platonistic, realistic, but neither exclusively physicalistic nor phenomenalistic. A cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect and an effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause.
The same cause produces the same effect; and the same effect is produced by the same cause. The cause is not present in any hidden form whatsoever in its effect. The Nyaya theory of error is similar to that of Kumarila's Viparita-khyati see Mimamsa. The Naiyyayikas also believe like Kumarila that error is due to a wrong synthesis of the presented and the represented objects.
The represented object is confused with the presented one. The word 'anyatha' means 'elsewise' and 'elsewhere' and both these meanings are brought out in error. The presented object is perceived elsewise and the represented object exists elsewhere. They further maintain that knowledge is not intrinsically valid but becomes so on account of extraneous conditions paratah pramana during both validity and invalidity.
Early Naiyyayikas wrote very little about Ishvara literally, the Supreme Soul. Evidence available so far suggests that early Nyaya scholars were non-theistic or atheists.
Some offered arguments against and some in favor. In Nyāya Sūtra's Book 4, Chapter 1, verses 19—21, postulates God exists, states a consequence, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.
The Lord is the cause, since we see that human action lacks results. This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no result is accomplished without human action. Since this is efficacious, the reason lacks force. A literal interpretation of the three verses suggests that Nyaya school rejected the need for a God for the efficacy of human activity. Since human action and results do not require assumption or need of the existence of God, sutra IV. Nyāya Sūtra verses IV.
Udayana 's Nyayakusumanjali gave the following nine arguments to prove the existence of creative God and also tried to refute the existing objections and questions by atheistic systems of charvaka, mimamsa, does god exist philosophy essay, buddhists, jsinas and samkhya: [21].
The Naiyyayikas believe that the bondage of the world is due to false knowledge, which can be removed by constantly thinking of its opposite pratipakshabhavananamely, the true knowledge.
The earliest text of the Nyāya School is the Nyāya Sūtra of Akṣapāda Gautama. The text is divided into five books, each having two sections.
Vātsāyana 's Nyāya Bhāṣya is a classic commentary on the Nyāya Sūtra. Udyotakara 's Nyāya Vārttika 6th century CE is written to defend Vātsāyana against the attacks made by Dignāga. Vācaspati Miśra 's Nyāyavārttikatātparyaṭīkā 9th century CE is the next major exposition of this school.
Two other texts, Nyāyaṣūcinibandha and Nyāyasūtraddhāra are also attributed to him. Udayana 's CE Nyāyatātparyapariśuddhi is an important commentary on Vācaspati 's treatise. His Nyāyakusumāñjali is the does god exist philosophy essay systematic account of theistic Nyāya.
His other works include ĀtmatattvavivekaKiraṇāvali and Nyāyapariśiṣṭa, does god exist philosophy essay.
Does God Exist? Kant’s Answer
, time: 7:28Descartes’ Epistemology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
God is beyond time altogether. It could be said that although God does not exist at any time God exists at eternity. That is, eternity can be seen as a non-temporal location as any point within time is a temporal location. Second, it is thought that God does not experience temporal succession. God’s relation to each event in a temporal Sep 29, · Theology Unleashed: Matt Dillahunty is a seasoned debater, the current president of the Atheist Community of Austin, and the well known host of The Atheist blogger.com has debated Jordan Peterson, David Wood and a host of other theists, and has shared stages with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris and Laurence Krauss Dec 03, · René Descartes (–) is widely regarded as the father of modern philosophy. His noteworthy contributions extend to mathematics and physics. This entry focuses on his philosophical contributions in the theory of knowledge. Specifically, the focus is on the epistemological project of his famous work, Meditations on First Philosophy
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